Techniques for Understanding Human Walking Motion

Techniques for Understanding Human Walking Motion Introduction Multimedia is a term that collectively describes a variety of media content available in various forms of text, speech, audio, still images, video, animation, graphics, 3D models and combinations of them used to capture real time moments. Over the recent years the technological advances have enabled wide availability and easy access of multimedia content and much research was dedicated to perform automated computational tasks for a wide spectrum of applications such as surveillance, crime investigation, fashion and designing, traditional aerospace, publishing and advertising, medical applications, virtual reality applications to name a few. The volume of multimedia information is so huge now that the improvement in various tasks of representation, analyzing, searching and retrieving process has become the need of the hour. Among all the available types of media, video is one of the prominent forms, widely used for analyzing multimedia content. Several types of videos can be captured by various recording devices but then even the most suitable types of devices used for acquiring videos have to deal with two important problems- sensory gap and semantic gap. The sensory gap being- the difference between the real world and its representation. â€Å"The sensory gap is the gap between the object in the world and the information in a (computational) description derived from a recording of that scene† [Smeulders, A. W. M., Worring, M., Santini, S., Gupta, A., and Jain, R. (2000). Content-based image retrieval at the end of the early years. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 22(12):1349–1380.]. The semantic gap being- the difference between the behavior description by human vision and the computational model used by the human activity/behavior analysis systems. â€Å"The semantic gap is the lack of coincidence between the information that one can extract from the visual data and the inter pretation that the same data have for a user in a given situation† [Smeulders, A. W. M., Worring, M., Santini, S., Gupta, A., and Jain, R. (2000). Content-based image retrieval at the end of the early years. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 22(12):1349–1380.]. Many researchers have proposed to build computational models of the human visual system to represent as close as possible to the reality. A major development was the framework proposed by David Marr at MIT, who used a bottom-up approach to represent scene understanding [D. Marr,† Vision: A Computational Investigation into the Human Representation and Processing of Visual Information†, Freeman, san Francisco (1982)]. Later, various state-of the-art methods evolved but, the technology that helps people to integrate the content of multimedia, for meaningful expression is still lagging behind. Within the realm of multimedia content analysis, computer vision methods and algorithms have been used as foundation and the coupled relation between multimedia analysis and computer vision is a well-known challenge. Currently, the most popular research performed by various researchers is the human movement analysis. Several types of activities that are performed by humans can be captured by various recording devices and the human motion analysis systems were built with respect to context of applications. The aim of human movement analysis systems is to automatically analyze and transform the input video sequences into semantic interpretation of them. The recognition of human activities has been studied by computer vision for quite some time but is far behind the capabilities of human vision. In human visual system- when a person moving is observed, human’s brain recognizes that person’s action by analyzing the transition of postures adopted or interprets behavior by tr acking the person’s transition of postures and noting the intent of action. This analysis is complex for computer vision systems. Since the human body is non-rigid, deformable, articulated, a person can have a variety of postures over time. The works on human activity analysis have not provided satisfactory results yet. To solve problems relating human movement analysis using videos, the paradigm of data fusion is recommended. Multimedia data fusion is a way to integrate multiple media, their associated features or integrate intermediate decisions to perform an analysis task. According to B.V Dasarathy, â€Å"Combining Multimedia data fusion is a formal framework in which are expressed means and tools for alliance of data originating from different sources for the exploitation of their synergy in order to obtain information whose quality cannot be achieved otherwise.† [Dasarathy, B.V. (2001) information fusion- what, where, why, when, and how? Information fusion, 2, 75-76]. In the existing literature several contributions are made to research on data fusion techniques used in multisensory environments and multimodal fusion with the aim of fusing and aggregating data obtained from multiple sources. Video data has a significant characteristic of multimodal content. Combining the information gat hered from multiple modalities is valid approach to increase accuracy. [ P.K Atrey, M. a Hossain, A.E Saddik and M.S Kankahalli. â€Å"Multimodal fusion for multimedia analysis: A Survey. Multimedia systems 16(6): 345-379, 2010] Multimedia fusion is useful for several tasks such as detection, recognition, identification, tracking and a wide range of applications. This research work presents multimedia analysis in combination with computer vision and data fusion perspectives to understand human walking motion in video sequences. This kind of research is challenging. Motivation From the view point of data fusion this research work is motivated by the observation that all living organisms have the capability to use multiple senses to learn about the environment and then the brain fuses all the information to perform a decision task. Human observer can easily and instantly recognize action. But, the main limitations with the visual sensory of humans are, limited range of visual perception, limitations and compromises of human brain. Whereas, automatic systems can work 24 hours a day and 7 days a week allowing accurate event detection and their cost is lower to maintain. On the other hand, from the view point of computer vision, algorithms and techniques are yet to improve performance for analyzing humans walking found in videos. Computer vision systems are far behind the capabilities of human vision and have to deal with two important problems- sensory gap and semantic gap. The sensory gap being- the difference between the real world and its representation and the semantic gap being- the difference between the behavior description by human vision and the computational model used by the human activity/behavior analysis systems. A promising strategy consists in integrating different techniques of data fusion and computer vision in a unified framework to enhance the performance of the tasks associated with analyzing human walking motion and overcoming the drawbacks. 1.3 The Goal The aim of this research work is to conduct a detailed investigation of currently available tools and techniques for understanding human walking motion and develop a generic framework where data fusion and computer vision perspectives are used to analyze human walking actions in context to real life applications. During the process of fusing, correlation of activities and patterns of activities can be detected to predict intent. Finally, performance will be evaluated for true positives, false positives and misclassifications. Summary of contributions Our work in the thesis is focused on the following significant contributions: Design of a unified framework, for combining data fusion and computer vision methodology to improve the performance of automatic analysis of human movements in videos. Tasks of detecting moving humans and related sub-problems in video frames using unsupervised techniques. Efficient technique to handle occlusion in the task of tracking walking humans. New strategy for accomplishing the task of correlation and predictions during detection and tracking of humans. Noticing and Interpreting stances change in walking movements. 1.5 Outline The thesis is organized as follows Chapter 2 –presents background and related literature review on various existing strategies and approaches of data fusion and computer vision while providing motivation for the proposed approaches used for the work in this thesis. Chapter 3 Provides detailed explanation on the unified framework. Show how the frame work helps in accomplishing the tasks of analysis in multimedia content for correlation and prediction along with a comparison of proposed frame work to JDL, Dasarthy data fusion model. Chapter 4 Presents an overview of state-of-the art methods for detection of humans in videos, the proposed novel work, experiments and the evaluations. Chapter 5 Presents an overview of state-of-the art methods for tracking of humans in videos, the proposed novel work, experiments and the evaluations. Chapter 6 Automatic interpretation of changes in stance changes in human walking. Chapter 7 Conclusions, future directions and related open issues are discussed. References: Smeulders, A. W. M., Worring, M., Santini, S., Gupta, A., and Jain, R. (2000).Content-based image retrieval at the end of the early years. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 22(12):1349–1380 D. Marr,† Vision: A Computational Investigation into the Human Representation and Processing of Visual Information†, Freeman, san Francisco (1982) Dasarathy, B.V. (2001) information fusion- what, where, why, when, and how? Information fusion, 2, 75-76 P.K Atrey, M. a Hossain, A.E Saddik and M.S Kankahalli. â€Å"Multimodal fusion for multimedia analysis: A Survey. Multimedia systems 16(6): 345-379, 2010

Introduction to Strategic Management Essay

The threats facing health care organizations vary in scope and nature (Authenticity Consulting, 2007). It is therefore a critical requirement that healthcare organizations adopt strategic plans that are capable of helping guard against such threats. To be able to do this, however, every individual organization has to identify the threats that face it and move to find ways of mitigating or managing the risks associated with the threats. This paper discusses four types of threats facing the National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI). These are environmental, economic, governmental, and demographic threats. Discussion  NAMI is specifically involved in the fight against mental illness through different methods. In this endeavor, the organization is faced with the following threats: Environmental Threats As an organization that deals with mental issues, the main environmental threat has been the rise in the number of people who are committing suicide because of their mental condition. This has been especially noted among teenagers (NAMI, 2010). For different reasons, it has been a threat to the continued successful operation of the organization which seeks to reduce the problems associated with mental illnesses, including death. According to the organization, teenage deaths have been on the rise, threatening to reverse the gains so far made. For instance, suicide committed by teenagers and adults with mental illnesses of different kinds accounted for more deaths in the country compared to the combined causes from cancer, stroke, pneumonia, birth defects, heart disease, Aids, and lung diseases (NAMI, 2010). This is a pointer that unless appropriate measures are taken to halt and reverse this trend, then the organization risks failing to achieve its objectives. An associated threat is that the cause of the high number of suicide among people with mental illness has not really been underpinned. This has made it even more difficult for intervention to be done effectively (NAMI, 2010). Economic Threats In its endeavor to fight against mental illness, NAMI usually employs the use of increased awareness through training and education on mental illness (NAMI, 2010). Do be able to do this the organization needs a lot of money. As a nonprofit, NAMI relies on the goodwill of sponsors such as charitable organizations and other well-wishers. In the recent times, however, this support has been waning, posing the threat of drying up. This threat has been more real during the global economic crisis than at any other time before because the ability of people to spend money has been greatly reduced due to economic hardships all over the world (Comerford, 2007). With a declining economic outlook, the organization is faced with the threat of having to reduce its advocacy campaigns and narrow down on the implementation of only those programs that are deemed very critical. Yet every program of NAMI is equally important. This lack of financial support threatens to curtail all the organization’s activities unless it is checked now. Demographic Threats NAMI deals with people from different backgrounds each of which has its own unique challenges (NAMI, 2010). Owing to different cultural practices and beliefs, different people with mental illness are treated differently by the society, a move that affects their chances of leading fulfilling lives. Stigma, for instance, is more rampant in certain communities than others. The threat of increased stigma against people with mental illness has been there for a long time now. This is in spite of efforts by NAMI to demystify some of the myths associated with mental illness (NAMI, 2010). Over time, stigma is likely to become a leading cause of death among people with mental illness. Another demographic threat is rampant rise in the population of the world which is making the resources available to people with mental illness to be reduced. Finally, the other threat is the high turnover of experts in the mental health care field (NAMI, 2010). Fewer professionals than are required have remained in the field to take care of the ever-increasing cases of mental illness. This has been exacerbated by the many professionals who continue leaving the field for different reasons (Begun, Kaissi & Sweetland, 2005). Government Threats Government policy has impacted NAMI in many ways. However, the greatest threat posed by government is its failure to pass policies that assist the mentally ill to get better health care services (Swayne, 2006). For instance, there has never been appropriate funding for mental health institutions especially those that are not-for-profit. This is in spite of the commendable work they do in ensuring that there is appropriate healthcare for the mentally ill. That aside, the government has always been coming up with new legislation regarding the health care sector from time to time without really caring what impacts such legislation has on the operations of organizations like NAMI (Begun, Kaissi & Sweetland, 2005). Then there is no appropriate health care insurance for people with mental illness because they hardly ever get to be among the main groups that are insured by the government or by their employers. As most people with mental illness never engage in gainful activities, they are faced with the threat of being ignored in major government plans. NAMI is also threatened by policy changes that might require it to meet certain minimum requirements to be eligible for funding (NAMI, 2010). Conclusion Given these threats facing NAMI, there is a need for appropriate strategies to manage them. As with all other threats, these particular ones are outside the control of NAMI and call for proper strategic planning to address them. Risk mitigation and change management are some of the approaches that can help deal with the threats and minimize their impacts should they actually come to happen.

Differential Pricing and Segmentation on the International Hotel

Differential pricing and segmentation on the Internet: the case of hotels Rama Yelkur Assistant Professor of Marketing, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Eau Claire, USA Maria Manuela Neveda DaCosta A Professor of Economics, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Eau Claire, USA Hotels, Service industries, Pricing, Segmentation, Loyalty, Internet Keywords Introduction In the 1950s, marketers discovered that, if they gave their customers what they wanted Abstract and did it better than the competition, their In the ever-changing electronic sales grew.With the advent of the Internet, environment of the twenty-first marketers have access to the technology to century, price is one of the key customize products and communicate strategic elements that is often overlooked by firms. The paper directly with smaller target markets. The addresses differential pricing in Internet is now firmly established as a business-to-consumer electronic marketing tool. It serves as an integral part commerce, in particular of the marketing mix, serving as a digital differential pricing for hotel services sold on the Internet. istribution channel as well as an electronic Hotels are able to take advantage storefront. of differential pricing for various When a firm establishes a presence on the segments because the market for Internet, its marketing activities, including hotels can be divided into narrow customer segments. An overview advertising, pricing, and distribution, should of e-commerce and Internet reflect characteristics unique to the medium marketing is provided. The to help consumers realize the value added characteristics of products sold over traditional methods. online and differential pricing are discussed.Pricing policies for onConsumers in the Internet medium are line marketing are examined with more than just passive recipients in the a special emphasis on differential marketing process (Hoffman et al. , 1995). The pricing, customer loyalty and Internet is an interactive medium as opposed segmentation. With the help of secondary data, online pricing to traditional marketing which usually strategies used by hotels on the allows only one-way communication (Peters, Internet are evaluated.Finally, 1998; Sandelands, 1997) from marketer to conclusions are drawn and implications for the hotel industry consumer. re discussed. Many diverse vendors, from florists to manufacturers of durable goods, as well as service providers such as airlines and hotels have rushed to do business on the Internet. In order to effectively market on the World Wide Web (the Web), companies need to evaluate the basic components of the marketing mix: product, price, place, and promotion. In the ever-changing electronic environment of the twenty-first century, firms must identify and sustain competitive advantage in order to survive. Price is one of the key strategic elements that is often overlooked by firms (Yelkur and Herbig, 1997).In the on-line setting, companies have the oppo rtunity to utilize price to build competitive advantage by enhancing customer satisfaction and loyalty by meeting Management Decision 39/4 [2001] 252 ±261 # MCB University Press [ISSN 0025-1747] The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www. emerald-library. com/ft the demands of specific segments which have the potential to improve the firm's profit position. How much impact is the Internet really having on the market mix, especially pricing?Is it changing the approach to pricing or is it merely complementing traditional pricing practices? Our paper addresses differential pricing and segmentation in business-to-consumer electronic commerce, in particular differential pricing for hotel services sold online. The consumer segments in the hotel industry are based on usage, situation, and frequency of use. Hotels are able to take advantage of differential pricing for various segments because the market for hotels can be divided into specific custom er segments (Awh, 1998; Yelkur and Herbig, 1997).The more specific the segment, the easier it is to estimate demand; the knowledge of demand is essential to adopting a differential pricing strategy. This paper is organized as follows: An overview of e-commerce and Internet marketing is provided. The characteristics of products sold online and differential pricing are discussed. Pricing policies for online marketing are examined with a special emphasis on differential pricing. The importance of customer loyalty and segmentation and their relationship to differential pricing on the Internet are emphasized.With the help of secondary data, online pricing strategies used by hotels on the Internet are evaluated. Finally, conclusions are drawn and implications for the hotel industry are discussed. The growth of e-commerce Business conducted over the Internet is commonly referred to as electronic commerce or e-commerce. E-commerce is changing the way firms do business. In 1999, e-commerce t ransactions accounted for over $150 billion in sales and it is predicted that this amount will increase to $3 trillion by the year 2003 (The Economist, 2000). E-commerce [ 252 ]Rama Yelkur and Maria Manuela Neveda A DaCosta Differential pricing and segmentation on the Internet: the case of hotels Management Decision 39/4 [2001] 252 ±261 transactions come in many forms. Table I displays an e-commerce matrix that illustrates the difference among these various types of transactions by giving examples: Business-to-business transactions still account for 80 percent of all e-commerce business but consumer-to-consumer, consumer-to-business, and business-toconsumer (the object of this study) transactions are expected to grow astronomically in the next decade.According to an Internet consulting firm (Forrester Research, as cited in The Economist (2000)), business-to-consumer trade in the USA amounted to about $20 billion in 1999 and could reach $184 billion by 2004, which is about 5 percen t of USA's retail trade. Product characteristics that facilitate Internet marketing Some areas of retailing and commerce may be particularly well suited for the Internet, given certain characteristics (see Table II). For business-to-consumer marketing, as proposed by Peterson et al. 1997), products and services in the context of the Internet can be classified on the basis of: . cost and frequency of purchase; . value proposition; and . differentiability. Products can vary from low cost, frequently purchased goods (ex: coffee), to high-cost, infrequently purchased goods (ex: car). In general, for goods for which purchase fulfillment requires physical delivery in a short time, the Internet is not an appropriate mode of delivery (Peterson et al. , 1997).For an industry such as hotels, where a transaction can be completed without physical delivery of the product and the frequency of purchase is relatively low and the cost is relatively high (when compared with consumables such as coffee ), the Internet is a more efficient medium for firms to use to conduct business. The suitability of the Internet also depends on the tangibility of the product. Internet marketing is practically well suited for certain types of services. For example, it is now widely used for banking and other financial services.When the value proposition is intangible and the frequency of use higher, the greater is the advantage of the Internet as a transaction and distribution medium. The transport and delivery of the goods are an important consideration. Clearly, it is easier to sell lighter goods over the Internet than bulky and heavy ones. Then, there are those that can be delivered electronically like software, music, and certain services like banking, insurance, travel and hotels. The 1999 top-ranking products in the US market in terms of online transactions were computer hardware/ software, travel, financial brokerages, and collectables.In fact, intangible or symbolic information products su ch as airline tickets or hotel reservations gain tangibility on the Internet medium. Internet marketing can result in extreme price competition when products are similar, because other factors that moderate competition (ex: store location) are absent. However, when products and services are capable of significant differentiation, the Internet can serve as a method of segmenting consumers and directing them toward the appropriate product or service, as is the case Characteristics of Internet marketingThe Internet represents an extremely efficient medium for accessing, organizing, and communicating information. As such, the Internet subsumes communication technologies ranging from the written and spoken word to visual images. Internet marketing is one of the newest distribution channels marketers use to reach the customer. It is different from traditional channels in that it is also a communication network. Like all communication networks, the Internet is all about establishing and re inforcing connections between people.The Internet has been growing rapidly in the second half of the 1990s and today it is available in approximately 38 percent of US households (Nielsen Media Research, 2000). No medium including television has reached the 50 million-user mark in four years (Strauss and Frost, 1999). The integration of the Internet as a technological tool as well as a delivery medium with traditional marketing has transformed the processes firms use with which to conduct business. Table I The e-commerce matrix Business Business B2B GM/Ford EDI networks C2B Priceline Accompany Consumer B2C Amazon E*trade C2C EBay QXLConsumer Source: The Economist, 2000 [ 253 ] Rama Yelkur and Maria Manuela Neveda A DaCosta Differential pricing and segmentation on the Internet: the case of hotels Management Decision 39/4 [2001] 252 ±261 in the hotel industry. The â€Å"hotel† product is relatively expensive, infrequently purchased, has an intangible value proposition, and rat es high on differentiation from competing products. As a result, sellers are able to charge a higher price based on the match between the buyer's needs and the nature of the product offering.In a traditional setting, such personalization would turn out to be relatively expensive. Yelkur and Herbig (1997), are explained below: Select a target market The broad target market for a business is already chosen when the product is positioned. The firm needs to divide its broad target market into smaller segments. Differential pricing The model of price discrimination or differential pricing used by Cannon and Morgan (1990) provides an important analytical insight into many discriminatory pricing practices.The prices charged by a firm practicing differential pricing are usually not proportional to the marginal costs incurred in producing the service. When firms adjust their prices according to customer, location or product, they are said to follow the strategy of segmented pricing or differ ential pricing (Strauss and Frost, 1999). It is not unusual for businesses to offer varying prices for consumers by age group, for example, senior citizen discounts. In addition, customers can be differentiated based on customer type, for example, the business customer versus the individual customer.Businesses can also offer different prices for products based on location; for example, the pricing of a hotel room in San Francisco, California, would be different from a similar room in Phoenix, Arizona. Finally, firms frequently price products differently not necessarily based on cost, but rather on the willingness to pay. For example, firstclass airline tickets are always priced much higher than economy fares (Strauss and Frost, 1999). In summary, segmented pricing can be based on three major factors: customer type, location of product or service, and product or service offering.It is also possible to customize prices based on the profile provided by the customer, as is the case for hotel services sold online. The five steps a firm must take to achieve a differential pricing policy, as illustrated by The essence of any customer service strategy is to segment the customer to be served. It is important to differentiate between market segmentation and customer service segmentation. Customer service segments differ from traditional market segments in significant ways. Customer service segments tend to be narrower (Davidow and Uttal, as cited in Yelkur and Herbig (1997).In addition, the narrower the segments, the more homogeneous they tend to be, making it easier to estimate consumer demand for each segment. Another factor that cannot be overlooked is the usage situation. Segmentation needs to take into account the what, where, how and why of demand. As demand is a result of the interaction of a person with the environment, a segmentation perspective that includes both the person and the situation is needed to explain the demand. In service industries such as hotels , distinct lines can be drawn, say, to divide different types of customers such as the vacationer or the business traveler.The usage situation thus gives the firm a guideline for customer service segmentation. Once customer segments are identified, the next step is to estimate the demand for each of these segments. Divide the target market into smaller customer service segments Steps for differential pricing Table II Product characteristics matrix for hotels Cost and frequency of purchase Relatively high cost Infrequently purchased Value proposition Intangible Service-related good Degree of differentiation Significant differentiation possible Source: Based on the Peterson et al. (1997) model [ 254 ]Customer demand can be estimated by a method suggested by Oren et al. (1984), which proposes that there are many customers in a target market, each with different characteristics summarized in an index, say, t, indicating customer type (based on the customer service type). Assuming that t here is a continuum of types with indices in the interval t0 t t1. The fraction of the population whose types are less than an index t is given by a distribution function H(t) (which forms the customer segment as described in the previous section) that is assumed to be continuous and strictly increasing. It implifies notation to let s = H(t) be this fraction so that t = H(s), and s is uniformly distributed on the interval 0 s 1. One can use s to denote a customer rank or customer type. Although this method is more suited to physical goods markets, it can be applied to service markets as well. In Estimate demand for each customer segment Rama Yelkur and Maria Manuela Neveda A DaCosta Differential pricing and segmentation on the Internet: the case of hotels Management Decision 39/4 [2001] 252 ±261 practice such estimations should be substantiated with both historical and estimated market data.Reservation price indicates the maximum amount a customer is willing to pay for a good or s ervice (Guiltinan, 1987). The reservation price of the customer indicates her willingness to pay and is the underlying benchmark for setting different prices for different customer segments. Classifying customers by the value they place on the service provides a rough estimate of the cost of satisfying them as well as the price they are willing to pay. Firms operating in service industries can use differential pricing only if they can estimate the distributions of the reservation prices.The amount by which the reservation price exceeds the actual price is the consumer surplus. The reservation price (Rp) would therefore depend on the value the customer places on the service (V) and the number of different firms offering the service (N). That is, Rp = f(V,N). The greater the number of firms offering the service, the lower will be the reservation price of the consumer. Whereas, if the customer has only a limited number of choices (substitutes), then her reservation price becomes higher ; that is her willingness to pay increases (her demand becomes more inelastic).The final price is determined for each customer segment based on customer type, location and product/service offering. Thus, though there is no change in marginal cost, different prices are charged depending on the type of customer segment and the reservation prices for each segment. Among the goods and services that are sold online, hotel services appear to be particularly well suited for differential pricing because of the ease of segmenting customers at a relatively low marginal cost. Determine reservation prices (which indicate willingness to pay) for each segmentRosen and Howard (2000) provides examples of improved transaction efficiency for service industries such as banking, travel, and stock brokerage. Table III illustrates the reduction in transaction costs for service firms because of delivery via the Internet. Traditional pricing strategies such as differential pricing, discussed in the previou s section, are particularly well suited to ecommerce. We will focus primarily on differential pricing for online services, also referred to as segmented pricing.A new and unique method of pricing called dynamic pricing, which is easily facilitated by the electronic medium, enhances differential pricing for online services. The Internet enables marketing managers to update product databases instantly and continuously, as new product features are developed and price adjustments are made (Strauss and Frost, 1999). Dynamic pricing allows Internet customers to receive up-todate price information on demand from product databases. This information changes with time and by user.For example business customers may receive different prices than individual customers. Business customers may receive different price information based on volume ordered. Thus, dynamic pricing allows further customization by target customer and further enhances the traditional segmented or differential pricing in the online environment. Determine prices for each segment Online presence of hotels Hotel services seem to be particularly suited to sale on the Internet. They can be delivered online and, once in place, benefit from tremendous economies of scale and scope.One firm can design a Web site and then just differentiate from locale to locale and from hotel to hotel at very low cost. In fact, the marginal cost of adding one more line to the Web site or another site for a new hotel is practically negligible. Despite these advantages, the hotel industry seems to have been relatively slow at â€Å"going digital† and using the Internet as a marketing tool. Hotel transactions in the USA account for less than 5 percent of the US total volume of e-business transactions. However, there is some indication that this is likely to increase significantly in the near future.Table IV shows that online travel business transactions increased from $2. 2 billion in 1998 to $6. 5 billion in 1999, a 200 pe rcent increase. Furthermore, when we disaggregate the total online travel bookings by travel product, it is interesting to note that lodging Pricing policies on the Internet E-commerce is likely to have a significant impact on pricing, as it creates a more competitive environment in which firms may sell. The Internet is able to generate different pricing mechanisms, particularly by allowing customers to make instant price and product comparisons.The Internet offers significant opportunity for reducing operating costs, particularly for service firms (Rosen and Howard, 2000). A study by Andersen Consulting (as cited in [ 255 ] Rama Yelkur and Maria Manuela Neveda A DaCosta Differential pricing and segmentation on the Internet: the case of hotels Management Decision 39/4 [2001] 252 ±261 increased from 13 percent in 1998 to 16 percent in 1999, a trend that is likely to continue. Table IV Total online travel bookings by travel product 1998 $2. 2 billion market (%) Air Lodging Car Cruis e/tour 80 13 7

Taking a Look at DNA Supercoiling - 684 Words

DNA supercoiling is the over-winding or under-winding of a DNA strand. In general, most organisms’ DNA is negatively supercoiled. There are two types of supercoiling: positive and negative. Positive supercoiling means that the DNA strands are twisted in the right direction; whereas negative supercoiling means that the DNA strands are twisted in the left direction. The laws of Physics govern everything that happens in the world, including DNA coiling in living beings. Some of the concepts in Physics that are involved in DNA coiling are quantum mechanics and statistical mechanics. Quantum physics is a branch of physics that explores certain units of energy, which are called quanta. These units of energy are described by the Quantum Theory. The dictionary definition of the Quantum Theory is: â€Å"Any theory predating quantum mechanics that encompassed Planck’s radiation formula and a scheme for obtaining discrete energy states for atoms, as Bohr theory.† This definition means that Quantum Theory deals with Planck’s radiation formula, Bohr theory and indivisible units of energy. A great deal of research has been conducted in the field of quantum mechanics and its connection with DNA supercoiling. Some Physicists have formed a theory, which states that quantum entanglement holds DNA molecules together and prevents the DNA from falling apart. Quantum entanglement is the relationship between any objects that deal with quantum mechanics. A Physicist named Elisabeth Rieper, from theShow MoreRelatedCell-cycle dissection is a technique in cell sci ence that utilizes stream cytometry to recognize800 Words   |  4 Pagesto recognize cells in diverse periods of the cell cycle. Before examination, the cells are permeabilised and treated with a fluorescent color that stains DNA quantitatively, generally propidium iodide (PI). The fluorescence force of the stained cells at specific wavelengths will in this manner associate with the measure of DNA they hold. As the DNA substance of cells doubles throughout the S period of the cell cycle, the relative measure of cells in the G0 stage and G1 stage (before S stage), in theRead MoreSymptoms And Treatment Of Bacterial Resistance Essay2228 Words   |  9 Pagespost-antibiotic era, in which common infections and minor injuries which have been treatable for decades can once again kill.†2 With how many people that have infections today, the topic of antibiotics is of utmost importance. The aim of this paper is to look at the history of antibiotics, how they work and why they are no t working now, and the possibility of better antibiotics in our future. History Antibiotics themselves are relatively new in the history of health and medicine. In order to better understand